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| 《当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库--语言论:言语研究导论》 | |
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内容简介
Language:An Introduction to the Study of Speech
Language and culture,Sapir contends,are separate from each other,Contrary to conventional belief,language is not an expression of "national temperament,"or of racial or geograhic influences,and is not an inherited skill.
Against thisgeneral background,Professor Sapir analyzes,for student and common reader,the elements of language.
Among these are the units of language (i.e.,the word with its "radical" and "grammatical" parts),grammatical concepts and their origins,how languages differ and resemble one another,and the history of the growth of representative languages.
Written more than fifty years ago,language stands as one of the clearest and most comprehensive surveys of its subject in English.
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目录
目 录 Preface by Halliday 王宗炎序 Preface by Chomsky 沈家煊序 导读 PREFACE I. Introductory: Language Defined Language a cultural, not a biologically inherited, function. Futility of interjectionmal and sound-imitative theories of the origin of speech. Definition of language. The psycho-physical basis of speech. Concepts and language. Is thought possible without language Abbreviations and transfers of the speech process. The universality of language. II. The Elements of Speech Sounds not properly elements of speech. Words and significant parts of words radical elements, grammatical elements . Types of words. The word a formal, not a functional unit. The word has a real psy- chological existence. The sentence. The cognitive, volitional, and emotional aspects of speech. Feelingtones of words. III. The Sounds of Language The vast number of possible sounds. The articulating organs and their share in the production of speech sounds: lungs, glottal cords, nose, mouth and its parts. Vowel articulations. How and where consonants are articulated. The phonetic habits of a language. The values of sounds. Phonetic patterns. IV. Form in Language: Grammatical Processes Formal processes as distinct from grammatical functions. Intercrossing of the two points of view. Six main types of grammatical process. Word sequence as a method. Compounding of radical elements. Affixing: prefixes and suffixes; in fires. Internal vocalic change; consonantal change. Reduplication. Functional variations of stress; of pitch. V. Form in Language: Grammatical Concepts Analysis of a typical English sentence. Types of concepts illustrated by it. Inconsistent expression of analogous concepts. How the same sen- tence may be expressed in other languages with striking differences in the selection and grouping of concepts. Essential and non-essential con- cepts. The mixing of essential relational concepts with secondary ones of more concrete order. Form for form''''s sake. Classification of linguistic concepts: basic or concrete, derivational, concrete relational, pure re- lational. Tendency for these types of concepts to flow into each other. Categories expressed in various grammatical systems. Order and stress as relating principles in the sentence. Concord. Parts of speech: no ab- solute classification possible; noun and verb. VI. Types of Linguistic Structure The possibility of classifying languages. Difficulties. Classification into formlanguages and formless languages not valid. Classification according to formal processes used not practicable. Classification ac- cording to degree of synthesis. Inflective and agglutinative. Fu- sion and symbolism as linguistic techniques. Agglutination. Inflec- tive a confused term. Threefold classification suggested: what types of concepts are expressed what is the prevailing technique what is the degree of synthesis Four fundamental conceptual types. Examples tabulated. Historical test of the validity of the suggested conceptual classification. VII. Language as a Historical Product: Drift Variability of language. Individual and dialectic variations. Time variation or drift. How dialects arise. Linguistic stocks. Direction or slope of linguistic drift. Tendencies illustrated in an English sentence. Hestiations of usage as symptomatic of the direction of drift. Leveling tendencies in English. Weakening of case elements. Tendency to fixed position in the sentence. Drift toward the invariable word. VIII. Language as a Historical Product: Phonetic Law Parallels in drift in related languages. Phonetic law as illustrated in the history of certain English and German vowels and consonants. Reg- ularity of phonetic law. Shifting of sounds without destruction of pho- netic pattern. Difficulty of explaining the nature of phonetic drifts. Vowel mutation in English and German. Morphological influence on phonetic change. Analogical levelings to offset irregularities produced by phonetic laws. New morphological features due to phonctic change. IX. How Languages Influence Each Other Linguistic influences due to cultural contact. Borrowing of words. Resistances to borrowing. Phonetic modification of borrowed words. Phonetic interinfluencings of neighboring languages. Morphological borrowings. Morphological resemblances as vestiges of genetic relation- ship. X. Language, Race and Culture Naive tendency to consider linguistic, racial, and cultural groupings as congruent. Race and language need not correspond. Cultural and linguistic boundaries not identical. Coincidences between linguistic cleavages and those of language and culture due to historical, not intrinsic psychological, causes. Language does not in any deep sense reflect culture. XI. Language and Literature Language as the material or medium of literature. Literature may move on the generalized linguistic plane or may be inseparable from specific linguistic conditions. Language as a collective art. Necessary esthetic advantages or limitations in any language. Style as conditioned by inherent features of the language. Prosody as conditioned by the phonetic dynamics of a language. 文库索引
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